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Posts
6 days ago
Sunday 30 January 2011
Monday 24 January 2011
Constructvism and Constructionism
In our reading last week, we saw an example of using spreadsheet software to reinforce effort. We considered how the strategy of Reinforcing Effort correlated with the tenets of Cognitive Learning Theory.
Let us imagine that, as an introduction to that sample lesson, the students had been invited to hypothesize as to some of the factors which might have a significant impact on test performance. The students could follow up by collecting and testing the data. In this example, students would be involved in Constructivist Learning since they are offered the opportunity to inquire into their own learning. They are constructing their own understanding by creating and testing their hypotheses.
As Dr.Orey (2001) points out "Rather than viewing knowledge as truth, constructivists construe it as a working hypothesis."
Now let's assume that the teacher encourages the students to prepare ways of communicating their findings by creating a final artifact. They might, for example, create a multimedia powerpoint presentation and then they would be using Constructionism since they are involved in producing a final construct.
The type of activity described above is often referred to as Learning by Design (LBD) or Program Based Learning (PBL). Since the students are immersed in generating and testing hypotheses, they are designing their own learning. The teacher should be instigating the ideas, guiding the project, supporting the plans and assessing both the process and the final outcome. "Learning by deisgn emerges fromt eh constructionist theory that emphasizes the value of learning through creating, programming or participating in other forms of designing. The design process creates a rich context for learning (...) Through this experience, learners construct meaning and internalize the learning process. (Orey, 2001). Project based learning extends this idea by stressing the importance of student-centered, authentic learning with an emphasis on creating as a part of the learning process. (Orey, 2001).
Many people feel that student-generated learning is best suited to older students. I would disagree with this assumption. Young children are often consider to immature or inexperienced to "know what's good for them". However, I believe that this is a serious underestimation of the true potential of every child. Like their older counterparts, young children have an amazing capabilty for self-regulation. And, from a teacher's point of view, this ability to think out loud makes assessment of the process a whole lot easier. I feel that developing and encouraging the ability to overtly verbalize their learning is crucial to effective constructivist education. Students who are competent and confident at expressing their thought process are more open-minded, creative and have less fear of taking risks, not to mention being invaluable members of cooperative teams.
This sharing of knowledge and understanding brings us closer to Vygotsky's theory of Social Constructivism; whereby meaning is developed not only through immersion in content but also through collaborating, evaluating and disseminating learning with others. "Vygotsky's sociocultural theory emphasizes the social environment as a facilitator of development and learning." (Laureate Education, Inc. 2008).
References:
Orey, M. (Ed.). (2001). Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Main_Page
Laureate Education, Inc. (2008). Learning Theories and Instruction. Boston: Pearson.
Let us imagine that, as an introduction to that sample lesson, the students had been invited to hypothesize as to some of the factors which might have a significant impact on test performance. The students could follow up by collecting and testing the data. In this example, students would be involved in Constructivist Learning since they are offered the opportunity to inquire into their own learning. They are constructing their own understanding by creating and testing their hypotheses.
As Dr.Orey (2001) points out "Rather than viewing knowledge as truth, constructivists construe it as a working hypothesis."
Now let's assume that the teacher encourages the students to prepare ways of communicating their findings by creating a final artifact. They might, for example, create a multimedia powerpoint presentation and then they would be using Constructionism since they are involved in producing a final construct.
The type of activity described above is often referred to as Learning by Design (LBD) or Program Based Learning (PBL). Since the students are immersed in generating and testing hypotheses, they are designing their own learning. The teacher should be instigating the ideas, guiding the project, supporting the plans and assessing both the process and the final outcome. "Learning by deisgn emerges fromt eh constructionist theory that emphasizes the value of learning through creating, programming or participating in other forms of designing. The design process creates a rich context for learning (...) Through this experience, learners construct meaning and internalize the learning process. (Orey, 2001). Project based learning extends this idea by stressing the importance of student-centered, authentic learning with an emphasis on creating as a part of the learning process. (Orey, 2001).
Many people feel that student-generated learning is best suited to older students. I would disagree with this assumption. Young children are often consider to immature or inexperienced to "know what's good for them". However, I believe that this is a serious underestimation of the true potential of every child. Like their older counterparts, young children have an amazing capabilty for self-regulation. And, from a teacher's point of view, this ability to think out loud makes assessment of the process a whole lot easier. I feel that developing and encouraging the ability to overtly verbalize their learning is crucial to effective constructivist education. Students who are competent and confident at expressing their thought process are more open-minded, creative and have less fear of taking risks, not to mention being invaluable members of cooperative teams.
This sharing of knowledge and understanding brings us closer to Vygotsky's theory of Social Constructivism; whereby meaning is developed not only through immersion in content but also through collaborating, evaluating and disseminating learning with others. "Vygotsky's sociocultural theory emphasizes the social environment as a facilitator of development and learning." (Laureate Education, Inc. 2008).
References:
Orey, M. (Ed.). (2001). Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Main_Page
Laureate Education, Inc. (2008). Learning Theories and Instruction. Boston: Pearson.
Sunday 23 January 2011
Tuesday 18 January 2011
Cognitive Tools for Learning
When cognitive theorists first hinted at the complexity of human learning, the best they could do was hypothesize. In their own words, the mental processes to which they referred were undetectable through mere observation. In more recent times however brain imaging technology and research is beginning to open up that closed world of brain function. It is forcing us to re-evaluate what we believe to be true about the operation of this fascinating organ.
Cognitive Learning Theory suggests that humans learn by sensory inputs entering the short term memory. From here the most important data is scrutinized more deeply by the working memory and rehearsed in order to pass into the long term memory. "Cognitive information processing is not the name of a single theory; it is a generic name applied to theoretical perspectives dealing with the sequence and execution of cognitive events." (Laureate Education, Inc, 2008.).
Keeping it clear
Essentially, keeping information manageable and concise adds to our ability to attend to it. Thus strategies such as advance organizers, summarizing and note taking assist us in focusing on what is important. "Note taking is similar to summarizing in that it enhances students' ability to organize information in a way that captures the main ideas and supporting details, helping students to process information." (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn And Malenoski, 2007.).
Connect the dots
Using spreadsheet rubrics (as an example of an advance organizer) provides a graphical representation of how knowledge is connected. Paivio's dual coding hypothesis and elaboration are instrumental in ensuring that information is not only stored but also more easily and effectively retrieved from the long term memory. Cueing and questioning are effective techniques for firing up previous learning experiences. Good questioning can trigger the recall of previously stored schema and provide opportunities for attaching the new learning to this previous understanding. "Questions perform the same function as cues by triggering students' memories and helping them access prior knowledge." (Pitler, et al, 2007.).
Tying it all together
Combining the use of advance organizers with effective, essential questioning can offer an ieven more powerful classroom instructional technique. Quality essential questions "... require the student to make a decision or create a plan" (Pitler, et al, 2007.) leading to deeper levels of critical thinking, such as problem solving.
Multimedia software, such as Powerpoint, allows students to present notes and summaries in a variety of formats: lists, tables, graphics and words. As technology advances, we begin to see an increasing number of cognitive tools which not only target the important elements of dual coding and elaboration but also extend the capacities and capabilities of the short term memory.
References:
Laureate Education, Inc. (2008). Learning Theories and Instruction. Boston: Pearson.
Pitler. H., Hubbell. E., Kuhn. M., and Malenoski. K. (2007). Using Technology with Classroom Instruction that Works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Cognitive Learning Theory suggests that humans learn by sensory inputs entering the short term memory. From here the most important data is scrutinized more deeply by the working memory and rehearsed in order to pass into the long term memory. "Cognitive information processing is not the name of a single theory; it is a generic name applied to theoretical perspectives dealing with the sequence and execution of cognitive events." (Laureate Education, Inc, 2008.).
Keeping it clear
Essentially, keeping information manageable and concise adds to our ability to attend to it. Thus strategies such as advance organizers, summarizing and note taking assist us in focusing on what is important. "Note taking is similar to summarizing in that it enhances students' ability to organize information in a way that captures the main ideas and supporting details, helping students to process information." (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn And Malenoski, 2007.).
Connect the dots
Using spreadsheet rubrics (as an example of an advance organizer) provides a graphical representation of how knowledge is connected. Paivio's dual coding hypothesis and elaboration are instrumental in ensuring that information is not only stored but also more easily and effectively retrieved from the long term memory. Cueing and questioning are effective techniques for firing up previous learning experiences. Good questioning can trigger the recall of previously stored schema and provide opportunities for attaching the new learning to this previous understanding. "Questions perform the same function as cues by triggering students' memories and helping them access prior knowledge." (Pitler, et al, 2007.).
Tying it all together
Combining the use of advance organizers with effective, essential questioning can offer an ieven more powerful classroom instructional technique. Quality essential questions "... require the student to make a decision or create a plan" (Pitler, et al, 2007.) leading to deeper levels of critical thinking, such as problem solving.
Multimedia software, such as Powerpoint, allows students to present notes and summaries in a variety of formats: lists, tables, graphics and words. As technology advances, we begin to see an increasing number of cognitive tools which not only target the important elements of dual coding and elaboration but also extend the capacities and capabilities of the short term memory.
References:
Laureate Education, Inc. (2008). Learning Theories and Instruction. Boston: Pearson.
Pitler. H., Hubbell. E., Kuhn. M., and Malenoski. K. (2007). Using Technology with Classroom Instruction that Works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Wednesday 12 January 2011
Behavorism in Practice
The application of Behaviorism, a theory most commonly associated with B.F Skinner, can be explained as teachers creating situations in which students are exposed to stimuli which require a response from the learner. This learned behavior is then either reinforced as effective or deterred or ignored if inappropriate. Interestingly, many people equate negative reinforcement with punishment but this is not necessarily the case. For example, in a computer game, or more commonly in the game of “Snakes and Ladders”, you might reward 5 correct answers (or moves) with skipping ahead. In the same way, rewarding consistently good quality homework with a free pass on the next homework assignment might be an example of negative reinforcement used as an incentive.
The strategy of reinforcing data using spreadsheets (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn & Malenoski, 2007) demonstrates several characteristics of Skinner’s (1954) programmed instruction with particular reference to computer-assisted instruction. The learning is presented in a linear fashion, the students are involved in active responding, new knowledge is built on prior understanding (in this case being able to understand the words in the rubric for example), there is immediate feedback and individualized outcomes (Laureate Education Inc., 2008, p.175). It also conforms to the components of mastery learning because it uses small units of content such as learning how to read a rubric, selecting appropriate score, inputting score into the spreadsheet, selecting a new workbook page which shows the graph, understanding how the graph demonstrates the correlation of effort and test scores. There is a logical, linear sequence to the learning and the students must understand the previous requirement before they are able to complete the next task. There are concrete, observable outcomes of this mastery. For example, if a student enters a score of 52 when the highest possible score is 4, they have clearly not achieved mastery of the previous skill. (Laureate Education Inc., 2008, p.177).
Thus, reinforcing effort through spreadsheet software requires the students to input data which then offers correlation information between the degree of effort as compared to the resulting test scores. The purpose of this technique is to encourage students to visualize the potential of test score improvement as a result of increased effort. Since the students are able to see the correlation between behavior (effort) and result (test score), the students is encouraged to apply this positive behavior onto future assignments. In this sense the behaviorist pattern of stimulus-response-reinforcement is clearly defined.
If we consider the four key principles of Behaviorism attributed to James Hartley (1998) by Smith, K. (1999) we can begin to analyze how the strategies of Homework and Practice relate.
1. The students are involved in the drills and practice of the skills. This is evident in the example of Coach Turnage and Mrs. Baker’s use of spreadsheets on pages 190-191 of Using Technology with Classroom Instruction that works (Pitler. H, Hubbell. E.R, Kuhn. M and Malenoski. K, 2007.)
2. The learning is repeated in a variety of situations and by different means. Where homework is concerned, the learning may have begun in the classroom and the homework task is similar to, but not necessarily identical, to the way in which it was delivered previously.
3. To be effective, homework and drill practice should be responded to as quickly as possible. Modern technology is a great source of immediate feedback for the students. For example the use of flash, interactive mathematical games can give students immediate feedback at home.
4. Mastery of learning is demonstrated in the example of how to use word-processing tools. Each step is clear, concise and builds on previous learning. In Emma’s search for the meaning of the term persecution, she builds on her understanding through the use of different reference tools.
References:
Hartley, J. (1998). Learning and Studying. A research perspective. London: Routledge.
Laureate Education, Inc. (2008). Learning Theories and Instruction. Boston: Pearson
Pitler. H., Hubbell. E., Kuhn. M., and Malenoski. K. (2007). Using Technology with Classroom Instruction that Works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Smith, K. (1999). The behaviourist orientation to learning. In The encyclopedia of informal education. Retrieved from http://www.infed.org/biblio/learning-behavourist.htm
The strategy of reinforcing data using spreadsheets (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn & Malenoski, 2007) demonstrates several characteristics of Skinner’s (1954) programmed instruction with particular reference to computer-assisted instruction. The learning is presented in a linear fashion, the students are involved in active responding, new knowledge is built on prior understanding (in this case being able to understand the words in the rubric for example), there is immediate feedback and individualized outcomes (Laureate Education Inc., 2008, p.175). It also conforms to the components of mastery learning because it uses small units of content such as learning how to read a rubric, selecting appropriate score, inputting score into the spreadsheet, selecting a new workbook page which shows the graph, understanding how the graph demonstrates the correlation of effort and test scores. There is a logical, linear sequence to the learning and the students must understand the previous requirement before they are able to complete the next task. There are concrete, observable outcomes of this mastery. For example, if a student enters a score of 52 when the highest possible score is 4, they have clearly not achieved mastery of the previous skill. (Laureate Education Inc., 2008, p.177).
Thus, reinforcing effort through spreadsheet software requires the students to input data which then offers correlation information between the degree of effort as compared to the resulting test scores. The purpose of this technique is to encourage students to visualize the potential of test score improvement as a result of increased effort. Since the students are able to see the correlation between behavior (effort) and result (test score), the students is encouraged to apply this positive behavior onto future assignments. In this sense the behaviorist pattern of stimulus-response-reinforcement is clearly defined.
If we consider the four key principles of Behaviorism attributed to James Hartley (1998) by Smith, K. (1999) we can begin to analyze how the strategies of Homework and Practice relate.
1. The students are involved in the drills and practice of the skills. This is evident in the example of Coach Turnage and Mrs. Baker’s use of spreadsheets on pages 190-191 of Using Technology with Classroom Instruction that works (Pitler. H, Hubbell. E.R, Kuhn. M and Malenoski. K, 2007.)
2. The learning is repeated in a variety of situations and by different means. Where homework is concerned, the learning may have begun in the classroom and the homework task is similar to, but not necessarily identical, to the way in which it was delivered previously.
3. To be effective, homework and drill practice should be responded to as quickly as possible. Modern technology is a great source of immediate feedback for the students. For example the use of flash, interactive mathematical games can give students immediate feedback at home.
4. Mastery of learning is demonstrated in the example of how to use word-processing tools. Each step is clear, concise and builds on previous learning. In Emma’s search for the meaning of the term persecution, she builds on her understanding through the use of different reference tools.
References:
Hartley, J. (1998). Learning and Studying. A research perspective. London: Routledge.
Laureate Education, Inc. (2008). Learning Theories and Instruction. Boston: Pearson
Pitler. H., Hubbell. E., Kuhn. M., and Malenoski. K. (2007). Using Technology with Classroom Instruction that Works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Smith, K. (1999). The behaviourist orientation to learning. In The encyclopedia of informal education. Retrieved from http://www.infed.org/biblio/learning-behavourist.htm
Wednesday 5 January 2011
A new beginning
The title of this posting has several meanings. Firstly, it is the beginning of a new calendar yer, 2011. Happy New Year to you! It also marks the beginning of a new course that I am taking.
Recently we have been introduced to the importance of creating strong links between prior and new information and with that in mind I decided to review a previous post I made on this blog which referred to brain research.
...After several long hours of trawling and search refining the Walden Library Online, I came upon the Journal: Mind, Brain and Education by Blackwell Publications Inc.
It contained many articles pertaining to this week's studies and I spent time digesting Bob Samuels (2009) "Can the Differences Between Education and Neuroscience be Overcome by Mind, Brain, and Education?" in particular.
A fascinating and relevant article which I would urge you to take a look at.
Other interesting websites such the Harvard Developing Child Center and Neuroscience for Kids can be found by checking out my recommended sites links on the right menu bar of this blog.
Recently we have been introduced to the importance of creating strong links between prior and new information and with that in mind I decided to review a previous post I made on this blog which referred to brain research.
...After several long hours of trawling and search refining the Walden Library Online, I came upon the Journal: Mind, Brain and Education by Blackwell Publications Inc.
It contained many articles pertaining to this week's studies and I spent time digesting Bob Samuels (2009) "Can the Differences Between Education and Neuroscience be Overcome by Mind, Brain, and Education?" in particular.
A fascinating and relevant article which I would urge you to take a look at.
Other interesting websites such the Harvard Developing Child Center and Neuroscience for Kids can be found by checking out my recommended sites links on the right menu bar of this blog.
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